Plants are constantly challenged by a wide variety of pathogenic organisms including viruses, bacteria, fungi, and nematodes. Crop plants are particularly vulnerable because they are usually grown as genetically-uniform monocultures; when disease strikes, losses can be severe. However, most plants have their own innate mechanisms of defense against pathogenic organisms. Natural variation for resistance to plant pathogens has been identified by plant breeders and pathologists and bred into many crop plants. These natural disease resistance genes often provide high levels of resistance to or immunity against pathogens.
Systemic acquired resistance (SAR) is one component of the complex system plants use to defend themselves from pathogens (Hunt and Ryals 1996; Ryals et al., 1996). SAR is a particularly important aspect of plant-pathogen responses because it is a pathogen-inducible, systemic resistance against a broad spectrum of infectious agents, including viruses, bacteria, and fungi. When the SAR signal transduction pathway is blocked, plants become more susceptible to pathogens that normally cause disease, and they also become susceptible to some infectious agents that would not normally cause disease (Gaffney et al., 1993; Delaney et al., 1994, 1995; 1993; Bi et al., 1995; Mauch-Mani and Slusarenko 1996; Delaney 1997). These observations indicate that the SAR signal transduction pathway is critical for maintaining plant health.
Conceptually, the SAR response can be divided into two phases. In the initiation phase, a pathogen infection is recognized, and a signal is released that travels through the phloem to distant tissues. This systemic signal is perceived by target cells, which react by expression of both SAR genes and disease resistance. The maintenance phase of SAR refers to the period of time, from weeks up to the entire life of the plant, during which the plant is in a quasi steady state, and disease resistance is maintained (Ryals et al., 1996).
Salicylic acid (SA) accumulation appears to be required for SAR signal transduction. Plants that cannot accumulate SA due to treatment with specific inhibitors, epigenetic repression of phenylalanine ammonia-lyase, or transgenic expression of salicylate hydroxylase, which specifically degrades SA, also cannot induce either SAR gene expression or disease resistance (Gaffney et al., 1993; Delaney et al., 1994; Maher et al., 1994; Mauch-Mani and Slusarenko 1996; Pallas et al., 1996). See also, U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/454,876, incorporated herein by reference in its entirety). Although it has been suggested that SA might serve as the systemic signal, this is currently controversial and, to date, all that is known for certain is that if SA cannot accumulate, then SAR signal transduction is blocked (Pallas et al., 1996; Shulaev et al., 1995; Vernooij et al., 1994).
Recently, Arabidopsis has emerged as a model system to study SAR (Uknes et al., 1992; Uknes et al., 1993; Cameron et al., 1994; Mauch-Mani and Slusarenko 1994; Dempsey and Klessig 1995). It has been demonstrated that SAR can be activated in Arabidopsis by both pathogens and chemicals, such as SA, 2,6-dichloroisonicotinic acid (INA) and benzo(1,2,3)thiadiazole-7-carbothioic acid S-methyl ester (BTH) (Uknes et al., 1992; Vernooij et al., 1995; Lawton et al., 1996). Following treatment with either INA or BTH or pathogen infection, at least three pathogenesis-related (PR) protein genes, namely, PR-1, PR-2, and PR-5 are coordinately induced concomitant with the onset of resistance (Uknes et al., 1992, 1993). In tobacco, the best characterized species, treatment with a pathogen or an immunization compound induces the expression of at least nine sets of genes (Ward et al., 1991).
A number of Arabidopsis mutants have been isolated that have modified SAR signal transduction. The first of these mutants are the so-called lsd (lesions simulating disease) mutants and acd2 (accelerated cell death) (Dietrich et al., 1994; Greenberg et al., 1994). These mutants all have some degree of spontaneous necrotic lesion formation on their leaves, elevated levels of SA, mRNA accumulation for the SAR genes, and significantly enhanced disease resistance. At least seven different lsd mutants have been isolated and characterized (Dietrich et al., 1994; Weymann et al., 1995). Another interesting class of mutants are cim (constitutive immunity) mutants (Lawton et al., 1993; Steiner et al., 1996). See also, U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/648,949, filed May 16, 1996, hereby incorporated by reference into the instant disclosure in its entirety. Like lsd mutants and acd2, cim mutants have elevated SA and SAR gene expression and resistance, but in contrast to lsd or acd2, do not display detectable lesions on their leaves. cpr1 (constitutive expresser of PR genes) may be a type of cim mutant; however, because the presence of microscopic lesions on the leaves of cpr1 has not been ruled out, cpr1 might be a type of lsd mutant (Bowling et al., 1994).
Mutants have also been isolated that are blocked in SAR signaling. ndr1 (non-race-specific disease resistance) is a mutant that allows growth of both Pseudomonas syringae containing various avirulence genes and also normally avirulent isolates of Peronospora parasitica (Century et al., 1995). Apparently this mutant is blocked early in SAR signaling.
Despite much research and the use of sophisticated and intensive crop-protection measures, including genetic transformation of plants, losses due to disease remain in the billions of dollars annually. Disease resistance genes have previously been cloned but transgenic plants transformed with these genes are typically resistant only to a subset of strains of a particular pathogen species. Despite efforts to clone genes involved in SAR, a gene controlling broad spectrum disease resistance has not until now been isolated and characterized.